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Ainu Grammar
A GRAMMAR OF THE AINU LANGUAGE.*________CHAPTER ITHE PHONETIC SYSTEMSECTION I -- THE ALPHABET.1.--In writing the Ainu language with the Roman letters, the next system has been adopted:--LETTERS. B. H. Chamberlain for many useful suggestions regarding arrangement.--J. It never occurs excepting followed by the vowel u. The Ainu assert, however, that pensai is an old Japanese word for "junk". It had been the name given to the junks which accustomed to come from Matsumai laden with rice for that Japanese military and fishing stations around the coast of Yezo.2.--It is going to be seen, in the above, that no sonant letter can begin a sentence, which, in composition only, surds are sometimes changed into sonants. These changes are listed below:-- K becomes g. P becomes b. T becomes d.3.--None of the consonants b, c, d, f, g, r, w, or y ever ends a thing; but k, m, n, p,[url=http://parajumpersparka.webmium.com/][b]Parajumpers Jackets On Sale[/b][/url], s, t, along with the combinations ch and sh, often do. The letters j and z are not here mentioned, because they are not now used.4.--Double consonants must always be pronounced, as in Italian and Japanese; thus:-- Ota; Sand Otta; In. Rama; Spirit, soul Ramma; Always. As an example of this, spot the word erum, a rat:-- In the Saru district erum is pronounced erem In the Ishkari é'rem. In the Usu erúm. At Poropet-kotan (village) At Shiraoi erum. Indeed it is, in many cases, very difficult to understand that is really meant; and often either way of speaking is considered equally correct, though in some instances the distinction is very sharp and important.6.--The tonic accent is slight and unimportant, and has therefore not been used in the work. The half-singing intonation, that is specially noticeable in the pronunciation from the women, can hardly be termed a tonic accent, neither has it anything that is similar to the "tones" used by china. There is also no marked distinction between long and short vowels.7.--The way letter-changes take place is as follows:--N becomes m before p, b, or m; thus;-- Tambe for tan pe or tanbe, it. Ku goro, my; ku kon'nishpa, my master. An guru, an individual; An gun' ne, it's a person. Oya moshir' un guru, for oya moshiri un guru, a foreigner. Moshir' ebitta, for moshiri ebitta, every person. Utar' obitta, for utara obitta, everybody.8-a.--By some persons the final "n" in pon and wen is modified into "I"; thus;-- Poi seta, for pon seta, just a little dog. All words may, if preferred, be pronounced entirely.10.--When it's wished to give special clearness to the pronunciation of a noun or adjective ending in a vowel, such final vowel might be reduplicated, preceded through the consonant h; thus:--NOUNS. Ishi or ishihi, a bird's tail. Nimaki or nimakihi, a tooth. Putu or putuhu, a lid; the mouth of the river. Sara or saraha, an animal's tail. Shiki or shikihi, an eye. Kunne or kunnehe, dark; black. Pirika or pirikaha, good. Poro or poroho, greet. Retara or retaraha, white. Ri or rihi, sometimes riri, high.11.--There are a handful of cases in which it is completely necessary to reduplicate the final vowel. Thus. Hochihi, a sum; must do not be pronounced hochi. Topaha, a crowd; must never be pronounced topa. JAPANESE. AINU. Kami, paper. Kambi. Kogane, gold. Kongane. Kosode,[url=http://parajumpersparka.webmium.com/][b]http://parajumpersparka.webmium.com/[/b][/url], a short-sleeved garment. Kosonde. Kugi, a nail. Kungi. Tabako, tobacco. (Jap. azuki.)Aunki, fan. (Jap. (Jap. tsukunou, to indemnify.)Emo, a potato. (Jap. imo.)Endo, a well. (Jap. (Jap. a boiler.)Kambi, paper. (Jap. kami.)Kamui, a god. (Jap. (Jap. kogane.)Kosonde, a short-sleeved upper garment. (Jap. (Jap. (Jap. odori.)Ottena, a chief. (Jap. otona, a grownup.)Pakari, a measure. (Jap. (Jap. (Jap. (Jap. saku.)Sarampa, goodbye. (Jap. s a ball. Tambako, tobacco. (Jap. (Jap. togi.)Tomari, an anchorage. (Jap. a stopping place.)Tunchi, an interpreter. (Jap. ts a row, a line. (Jap. tsura.)Umma, a horse. (Jap. uma.)Yakata,[url=http://parajumpersoutletitalia.albirank.net/][b]parajumpers Piumini online[/b][/url], a house. (in Jap. this word denotes a palace.)Yo, business. (Jap. y following are a few examples of Hybrid compounds. Listed here are of frequent occurrence:--MASCULINE. Karaku, cousin. Matkaraku, cousin. Kiyanne-po, elder son. Unu, mother (rarer than habo.)Pinne, male. Matne ruop, a lady squirrel.18.-In expressing the masculine gender of people,[url=http://billigeparajumpersjackendamen.albirank.net/][b]parajumpers long bear herren[/b][/url], however, the word pinne must do not be used. Okkai and okkaiyo should take its place; thus:-- Okkai poho, just a little boy; a son. Okkaibo, a man.19.-It should be carefully noted that the word okkaibo isn't applied to lads between the ages of twelve and eighteen. During this period of life,[url=http://parajumpersoutletitalia.albirank.net/][b]http://parajumpersoutletitalia.albirank.net/[/b][/url], lads are called heikachi or heikat'tara. Shine amam-chikap, one sparrow; a sparrow. Shine chiramantep, one bear; a bear. Shine itangi, single serving; just one cup. Shine itunnap, one ant; an ant. Shine Shisam, one Japanese; a Japanese.22.-It is going to be seen through the above examples that, when the numeral shine is so used, it corresponds, pretty much, towards the indefinite article a or perhaps an. (See No. Utarapa utara, lords.24.-Notice, in such words as hautur'un guru and uitek guru, the dropping from the word guru, person, that the utilization of utari, utare, or utara renders superfluous. 25.-In two words heikachi, lad; and matkachi, girl; the ultimate chi is contracted into t before the suffix utara, the u which is dropped; thus:--SINGULAR. Matkat'tara, girls.26.-The full way of writing matkachi is matnekachi. Matnekachi is most likely short for matne-heikachi. Heikachi has been the traditional word for child, whether boy or girl. Actually, even today, this word is sometimes put on young people of either sex, particularly through the Ainu of Usu Kotan and also the neighbouring district.27.-Though there is no absolute rule from the use of utari, utare, or utara after the names of lower animals, it is considered best to avoid doing this. Within their case, therefore, as in those of inanimate objects, plurality remains to become inferred in the context or from the verb.28.-Diversity of subjects may be expressed by prefixing the term usa to nouns; thus:-- Usa-katpak, various or many sins. Usa-seta, various or many dogs. Usa-shiyeye,[url=http://giuseppezanottimenssneakers.webmium.com/][b]giuseppe zanotti sneakers men[/b][/url], various or many diseases. Usa-tashum, various or many sicknesses. Usa-wenburi, a number of bad habits. - THE CASES OF NOUNS.29.-In the Ainu language there are no cases properly so called. What's termed case in Latin and other Aryan languages is either left to be gathered in the context, or perhaps is denoted by utilization of another particle, as with English. The particles are, however, generally placed after, instead of before, what they govern, and many seem to be therefore postpositions, though some are used as prepositions. Tonin honoyanoya wa arapa, the worm goes wriggling along. Kikiri kotoise, the insects swarm. Ni sempirike, the colour tone of trees. Nonno hura, the scent of flowers. Wose-kamui kik, he struck the howling dog. - ABSTRACT NOUNS.30.-What in English are termed "abstract nouns" can scarcely be believed to exist in Ainu as basic words. Wen'i or ambe, badness.31.-The word ambe is itself a compound noun formed from an, "to be", and pe, "a thing". Great care must, therefore, be exercised in using it with adjectives to state abstract nouns; for retara ambe may, and frequently does, mean "a white thing", and never "whiteness", and oupeka ambe "an upright person", and never "uprightness". The following sentences assists to illustrate this:-- Tokap chup kiai nupeki ambe anakne, shi no kotom ne ruwe ne; The brightness of the sun's reflection is definitely beautiful. Tan nonno anakne retar' ambe ne; This flower is white.32.-The following are examples of abstract nouns produced by prefixing i to verbs:--VERBS. NOUNS. Eshokoro, to think. Yainu'i, thought. Ye, to say. Ye'i, a saying.33.-Care must always be taken to pronounce the particle i distinctly; actually, it may be easier to place the letter h prior to the i;--thus, itak, itakhi; yainu, yainuhi. Compare No. 10. 34.-Once or twice we have heard yainuhu for yainuhi. The second seems to be the right way of speaking; anyway, it is the form now in common use. SECTION 5. NOUNS. E, to eat. A-yep, anything spoken.40.-It sometimes makes no perceptible difference to the sense whether the verb accustomed to make up the compound be passive or active, as might be seen by comparing ep and a-ep, each of which mean food. Shik-o katu, birth.43.-The word katu means 'shape", "form", "mode", "way". Thus , an katu might be translated by "mode of being", itak katu by "way of speaking", and shik-o katu by "manner of birth".44.-When the verb is immediately then the compound word ambe, the two together should, in some cases, be translated by a single noun. Take, for example, the next examples:--VERBS. Shik-o ambe, a birth (lit. (Cape Esan.)Mopet kotan, the village by the quiet river. (Jap. (Jap. (Jap. (Jap. Tomakomai.) Yam kush nai kotan, the village by the stream of the chestnut burs. (Jap. Yamakoshi.)50.-Many from the names of places in Japan, whose origin is doubtful, may apt to be traced to the Ainu language. (Corrupted by the Japanese into koshi.)Pet, a river. Por'i means, "the place of the caves." Shiri, earth; land; a tropical. Put on water "swift"; as:--Shiri pet nupuri (Jap. Sak, summer. Chuk, autumn. Mata, winter.52.-The twelve monts of the season are listed below. Their etymology is obscure, and they are now mostly supplanted by their Japanese equivalents:--Churup chup, January. Kuyekai chup, December.53.-The Four Quarters of the Compass are:--Hebera, north. Ri, high. Kotom, pretty. Shiretok, beautiful. Pirika, good. Of some, the derivation is as yet doubtful; of others, it's clearer. The ones from doubtful derivation end in ne, nu, o, tek, and ush; they're given first. (a)-Those of doubtful derivation.57.-Adjectives which can end in ne are listed below:--Ashkanne, clean. Toranne, idle.58.-Adjectives which result in nu:--Aekat nu, delicious. Oaikanchi-o, swarming with earwigs. Taiki, a flea. Uruki-o, filled with nits. See No. 202. 60.-Adjectives which result in tek:--Akonuptek, interesting. Yachi-ush, miry. Numa-ush, hairy. Ye-ush, fatty; mattery.62.-The following somewhat peculiar uses of the word ush should be carefully noted:--Apa-ush kamui, the deity of doorways (lit. the watery gods).63.-From an research into the above examples, along with a consideration of other uses of the word ush, we may safely conclude that, whatever other meanings it might have, many times, it has a locative sense by using it. It's similar to the particle un, which is also locative. Probably ush may be the plural form of un. (For un see No. 248.)(b.)-The adjectives whose derivations tend to be more clear.64.-Adjectives which go ahead and take verb an, to become, after them:--Keme an, scarce; rare. a person having strength.)The context alone must always decide exactly how the sentence should be translated into English.65.-Adjectives ending using the verb koro, "to possess":--Haro koro, fat (lit. possessing backbone or spine). Keutum koro, of strong mind, will, or disposition (lit. possessing mind or soul). possessing a scolding heart). without backbone or spine). Ramu sak, foolish (lit. without thinking; without thought). 67.-It may be inferred from the preceding examples that,[url=http://woolrichswedense.albirank.net/][b]woolrich arctic parka sweden outlet woolrich online shop sweden göteborg[/b][/url], if you take the affirmative ending koro from any noun, and supplying the negative word sak in the place, or the other way around, adjectives could be made when needed. Such however, isn't the case. Thus, otek sak is "poor"; but "rich" is otek-nu. COMPARATIVE. Naa pirika, better. Naa pon, smaller. Naa ri, higher. Two illustrations of every method are here given as examples.(a).-The comparative with akkari. than you, I go fast). Nei tonoto akkari, tan tonoto shisak ne ruwe ne ;This wines are sweeter than that (lit. than that wine, this wine is sweet).(b).-The comparative with akkari and eashka. compared to land, the ocean is more great). Kunne chup akkari, tokap chup anak ne easlika nupeki an ambe ne ruwe ne, the sun's rays is brighter compared to moon (lit. compared to moon, the sun's rays is a thing more bright).(c).-The comparative with akkari and eitasa. Eitasa means "excess":-- Toan kotan akkari, tan kotan anak ne eitasa hange no an kotan ne ruwe ne, this village is nearer than that (lit. surpassing you, I am short). SECTION 4.-DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVES.72.-The demonstrative adjectives, "this", "that", "these", and "those", are listed below:-- SINGULAR. This is because okai is really a plural verb meaning "to dwell at" or "be in" a place.74.-The demonstrative adjectives will also be used for the 3rd person singular and plural from the personal pronoun. See Nos. Sonno, truly. See No. Ratchi-tara, gently.78.-When the letter p is suffixed with a of the simple adjectives which result in a, e, i, or o (see Section 1), or to any of the adjectives compounded with ne or nu (see Section 2, Nos. Wayash nup, a wise thing.79.-The letter p, that is here compounded using the adjectives, is really a contraction of pe, "a thing". This ought to be carefully borne in your mind lest, in construing, mistakes should arise. The p converts the adjective, that it's attached, right into a concrete, not into an abstract noun. Thus, kaparap isn't "thinness", but "a thin thing"; and porop isn't "largeness", but "a large thing"; nor is wayash nup "wisdom", but "a wise person" or "thing".80.-As another adjectives, namely a number of the simple, and all of the rest of the compound adjectives, are not capable of using the contracted form p after them, they're then the term entirely, that is, pe softened into be, thus:-- Hekai be, a classic person. Thus, forty is "two score" (tu hot ne); sixt is "three score" (re hot ne); eighty is "four score" (ine hot ne); along with a hundred is "five score" (ashikne hot ne).84.-Numbers may be framed by way of scores for an indefinite extent; but in actual practice the higher numbers are hardly ever, when, met with. Presently day, the more Japanese approach to numeration is rapidly supplanting the cumbrous native system.85.-In order to arrive at a definite understanding of the Ainu system of counting, a student must carefully note the next particulars:--(a.)-The word ikashima commonly means, "excess", "redundance"; but with the numerals it signifies, "addition",[url=http://rogervivierflatsonline.albirank.net/][b]sell discount 2013 Roger Vivier Flats Online Roger Vivier Online Store[/b][/url], "to add to". It is usually placed following the number which is conceived of as added.(b.)-The particle e signifies "to subtract", "to take from", and follows the number which is supposed to be studied away. Care must therefore be taken not to confound this particle with the e which is often used as a preposition, and meaning, "to", "towards",[url=http://giuseppezanottimenssneakers.webmium.com/][b]giuseppe zanotti sneakers[/b][/url], (See Chapter IX. Section 2 No. 196). Ine yaoshkep, four spiders.87.-the radical form shine can also be often used as the indefinite article a or perhaps an. See Nos. For persons it is formed with the addition of niu, in some of the numbers abbreviated towards the single consonant n. For things and animals it's formed with the addition of pe, be, or the letter p alone. Shinen ikashima,[url=http://billigeparajumpersjackendamen.albirank.net/][b]parajumpers long bear[/b][/url], wa niu, eleven persons. Ren, three persons. Tun ikashima,[url=http://duveticaonlineitaly.albirank.net/][b]Duvetica piumini[/b][/url], wa niu, twelve persons. Inen, four persons. Ashikne hot nep, a hundred things. Seta inep, four dogs.92.-Niu, pe and pish might be thought to correspond in certain degree towards the so-called "classifiers" or "auxiliary numerals" of Chinese, Japanese, and several other Eastern languages; but no further trace of such "classifiers" exists.93.-The radical form can't ever be used in response to a question. In such a case one of the substantive forms should be employed.94.-Some nouns are excluded by their nature from both above categories. The following are several such words. Kamui, "god or gods"; To, "a day"; Tokap, "day"; Kunne, "night", "black".95.-Kamui is counted the following:--Shine kamui, one god. Shine kamui ikashima, wan kamui, eleven gods. Ine kamui, four gods. IX. 2.), or "three days and three nights" (as with Matt. XII. The first is as follows:--Shine ikinne, first. Above ten the very first method alone is in use:--Shine tutanu, first. Iye wan ikinne, tenth.102.-The ordinals are rarely met with. And so on. See Nos. 30, 31, 199.(c.) Kani is simply a contraction of kuani.(d.) Chokai is contracted from chi which means "we", and okai, which signifies "to be at" or "in a place". Like chokai,[url=http://woolricharcticparkaherenoutlet.olimx.com/][b]Woolrich Arctic Parka Outlet[/b][/url], aokai and anokai were originally plurals, and still so used in certain contexts.111.-Sometimes what ku shiroma and e shiroma are heard for that first and second person singular respectively, but not often. Shiroma is really a verb meaning "to abide", "to stay". (Compare Chapter III. Section 4, Nos. Before verbs, "we" is expressed by chi, and "ye" by echi. (See Nos. 163-164.)SECTION 2.-THE CASES OF PRONOUNS.117.-The various forms from the third and fourth persons mentioned above in Sect. 1 might be termed nominatives. For an okai utara koro, their.126.-The double form may be used; thus:--SINGULAR. Echi utara echi koro, your. 127.-Sometimes a-koro can be used rather than chi koro, but not often. SINGULAR. Nenka, someone. The imperative and all the indirect or oblique moods, along with the desiderative forms and all the tenses, are expressed by means of separate words. When used as an auxiliary to verbs, it, like shiri ne, ensures that the action continues to be happening. It expresses, as they say, "the very act". It's as if one said, "it is really, and no mistake". Eramu is really a verb meaning "to understand", "to know". Shin'ne is really a shortened form of shiri ne, mentioned above under No. 2 (b). nangoro. Such as the rest, it also follows the verb that it has reference.136.-The words ruwe ne might be added to the main or to either of the above auxiliaries; and the particle na, which has also a conclusive force in it, may follow them.137.-Both yesteryear and future tenses might be shown by adverbs of time being placed prior to the person of the verb. In such instances, the auxiliaries may be retained or omitted at pleasure.138.-It will be seen by reference to the passive voice,[url=http://duveticaonlineitaly.albirank.net/][b]duvetica jackets shop online[/b][/url], that, using the second person singular and plural, the verb an always follows the main verb. An may be the substantive verb "to be".139.-The verbs from the Ainu language naturally resolve themselves into two divisions, viz.:--(a.) Those of unchanging stem. To this class belong all verbs ending otherwise than in ra or ro.(b.) Those whose stems change. These verbs end only in ra or ro. Kik (they) strike. SINGULAR. (PASSIVE). A-kik, (they) are struck.(b.)-The present tense with the auxiliary ruwe ne. SINGULAR. Kik ruwe ne, (they) strike. SINGULAR. Echi kik an ruwe ne, ye are struck. A-kik ruwe ne, (he) is struck. A-kik ruwe ne,[url=http://billigtmonclerdunjackastockholmrea.olimx.com/][b]Moncler Dunjacka Stockholm[/b][/url], (they) are struck.(c.)-The present tense using the words shiri ne. SINGULAR. Kik shiri ne, (they) are striking. SINGULAR. A-kik shiri ne, (they) are now being struck.(d.)-The present tense with koro an. SINGULAR. Kik kor'an, (they) are striking. SINGULAR. A-kik kor'an, they're being struck.(e.)--The present tense with ruwe tap an. Kik ruwe tap an, (they) strike. SINGULAR. A-kik ruwe tap an, (they) are struck.141.-Past Tense.(a.) Yesteryear tense with nisa. SINGULAR. Kik nisa, (they) struck. SINGULAR. A-kik nisa, (they) were struck.(b.) Yesteryear tense with okere. SINGULAR. Kik okere, (they) struck. SINGULAR. A-kik okere, (they) were struck.(c.) Yesteryear tense with awa. In certain combinations this type is equivalent to the English perfect tense:--SINGULAR. PLURAL. SINGULAR. SINGULAR. Kik nangoro, (they) will strike. SINGULAR. A-kik nangoro, (they) will be struck.143.-The Imperative is expressed thus:-- SINGULAR. Kik yan, strike ye. Kik anro, let's strike. SINGULAR. Echi a-kik yan, be ye struck. SINGULAR. Kik rusui, (they) need to strike. A-kik rusui, (they) were desired to strike.145.-The Potential Mood might be expressed in 2 ways; (a) by the word etokush; (b) through the words kusu ne ap.(a.) The possibility with etokush. SINGULAR. Kik etokush, (they) must strike. SINGULAR. Iteki kik yan, don't strike. SINGULAR. Iteki echi a-kik yan, be ye not struck. (ACTIVE.) PAST. Kik wa, striking. FUTURE. Kik kushne, about to strike. Chi kara, we make, etc. SINGULAR. A-un kara, we are made, etc. SINGULAR. Chi kan ruwe ne, we make, etc. SINGULAR. A-un kan ruwe ne, we are made,[url=http://parajumpersoutletitalia.albirank.net/][b]parajumpers Parka Piumini online shop abbigliamento[/b][/url], etc.152.-It ought to be noted here that before ruwe, ra and ro are always turned into n. Shiri ne and kor'an go ahead and take full form kara before them.153.-It is going to be seen, previously and future te相关的主题文章：

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